ANNOUNCEMENTS
Over the past century, worldwide resource extraction has expanded rapidly. This expansion of resources has been achieved through either intensification of existing operations or through expansion of frontiers of extraction. Expanding frontiers of resource extraction – especially in non-industrialized economies – have repeatedly led to encroachments in physical spaces already inhabited by people. This expansion has, directly and indirectly, impacted lives of local inhabitants, among others, through displacements, ecological damages, and deprivations of environmental inheritances. As a result, environmental and social justice movements, or ecological distribution conflicts (EDCs) in defence of land, ecosystems, and human rights are on the rise globally. Similar trends have been observed in India.
In India, economic growth of the past few decades has been accompanied by a massive increase in materials flowing through the economy, with resource flows almost quadrupling between 1961 and 2008. Since India is largely self-sufficient in minerals, this increase in resource flows has largely been a result of extraction of resources within the country. In the case of India, this is of particular importance, because natural resources are concentrated in regions with dense forest covers, and high percentages of populations of marginalized communities which includes socioeconomically weaker people. As such, this expansion has been accompanied by significant resistance, and as a result, ecological distribution conflicts (EDCs) are on the rise.
One of the most prominent causes of conflict is mineral ore extractivism. My thesis documents, and analyses such EDCs, and further, explores solutions within the legislative framework of India to such EDCs.
Research questions
Broadly I addresses the following questions: If mineral extraction is one of the causes behind the conflict what are those minerals? What are the other major causes behind the resistance? How successful have these movements been in altering the patterns and processes of extractivism? What roles social awareness play in it? What roles the institutions can play in it?
The thesis also seeks to address the gaps in post-growth and post-extractivism in India. Analysis carried out includes works on post-extractivism in Latin America, as well as from authors who can be categorized as post-extractive in India. The objective is to explore post-extractivism and present a foundational understanding of the same in India. Towards this end, a few post-extractive proposals for the Indian context are presented in the thesis.
Methodology
In this thesis, based upon volume of minerals extracted, data availability, and number of conflicts, iron ore has been chosen to understand and analyse the variety of processes of predatory extractivism in further detail.
The following major analyses that have been conducted in this thesis: (i) compilation and analysis of databank of EDCs over (non-fuel) minerals, (ii) analysis of EDCs over iron ore across India, (ii) two fieldworks in Goa and Odisha for analysis of EDCs at frontiers of iron ore extraction, (iii) institutional analysis of mining of major minerals in India, and (iv) exploration of alternatives to extractivism using post-growth and post-extractivist literature.
Contributions to existing literature:
My doctoral dissertation has made four major contributions to existing literature on EDCs against mineral extractivism at resource peripheries in India.
Firstly, I presented the largest database to date on EDCs over mineral extraction in India composed of over a 100 cases of EDCs over a two decade period using English literature (1992-2014). Secondly, I applied, for the first time, the theory of extractivism and developed a foundation understanding of intra-national dependency theory within India. Using the case of iron ore, I identified the existence of resource peripheries undergoing predatory extractivism within India. Thirdly, it made the first attempt to theorize post-extractivism within India. Fourthly, using cases of bottom-up social resistances against extractivism, I identified and analyzed institutional changes that have been implemented through the Supreme Court of India.
Major conclusions:
The major conclusions that emerge from this analysis are:
Firstly, the largest number of protesting actors emerge to be rural residents, and the most recurring reason for protest emerges to be livelihood based concerns, both of which are indicative of an ‘environmentalism of the poor’ Secondly, sand mining emerges as the leading conflict generating mineral; Thirdly, in a large number of cases the presence of mafia, violence against activists, and deaths have been identified; Fourthly, numerous EDCs have involved the development of locally organized citizen’s groups to challenge the presence of, proposed operations of, or expansion of extractive activities; Fifthly, most conflicts have been found to last long periods of time (58% lasting over one year), with 21 conflicts lasting over 10 years; Finally, the largest number of conflicts are against informal, or illegal mining operations.
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